Japanese terminology
The Japanese term "matsu-take" literally translates as "pine-mushroom,"
and originally it referred collectively to Tricholoma matsutake and closely
related Asian species. Japanese-Americans used it for the American species
T. magnivelare when they began substituting this mushroom for matsutake
species found in their native homelands (Redhead 1997). Tricholoma
magnivelare is variously called (North) American matsutake, white matsutake, pine
mushroom, or tanoak mushroom (Plates 4 and
5). Tricholoma magnivelare
grows in association with a wide variety of tree hosts, so we prefer
the general and inclusive common name "American matsutake." By contrast,
we will use "Japanese matsutake" to refer to T. matsutake (Plate
6).
Use of the term "matsutake" can be confusing, and it is used inconsistently
in published literature. Some authors capitalize it, as if referring to an
individual, others do not. We will not, and will instead follow common practice
for "morel" or "chanterelle" mushrooms. More importantly, "matsutake" is
both singular and plural. Also, it is variously used to refer to any
Tricholoma
species that is marketed as matsutake, collectively to all the species marketed
as matsutake, to individuals of the matsutake fungus (that is, genetically
unique colonies in the soil), or to the fruiting bodies (mushrooms) that an
individual matsutake fungus produces. We avoid the bilingually redundant
term "matsutake mushroom," even though it is used in the literature.
Scientific names are used to distinguish among Tricholoma species. References to
matsutake habitat, management, monitoring, or resource imply either species
or populations. Matsutake fruiting refers to the fungus (either individually
or as populations of individuals). Matsutake production refers to numbers
of mushrooms or weight of a crop of mushrooms. Matsutake harvesting,
collecting, or marketing refers to the mushrooms (singular or plural).
Another commonly used Japanese term in matsutake literature is
"shiro." As a Japanese noun, it means castle or domain (fruiting place) of a
mushroom. As an adjective, it means white. More specifically, a shiro is the
dense mat of fungal filaments ("hyphae" or collectively "mycelium") that
matsutake species form in the soil. It is also used to refer to locations where
the matsutake fungus fruits (that is, mushroom patches in the forest). In this
sense, a typical shiro consists of mushrooms growing in a linear arc, like
incomplete (or occasionally complete) "fairy rings." Shiro morphology and
ecology are discussed later in greater detail. Both "shiro" and
"shiros" are
used for the plural of this term in the literature. For clarity, we will use
"shiros" as the plural. |
Wild, edible forest mushrooms are a relatively new crop among special
forest products, but their harvest has quickly expanded into a multimillion dollar industry
in the Pacific Northwest. Several mushroom species are harvested (Molina and
others 1993, Amaranthus and Pilz 1996) but the most valuable, in fresh weight
price paid to harvesters, is the American matsutake. Considerable controversy
surrounds the proper management of the American matsutake and its harvest;
disagreement often stems from lack of knowledge about its ecology, productivity,
proper harvesting techniques, and the effect of repeated harvesting on future
production. The objectives of this paper are to summarize existing knowledge
about Japanese and American matsutake species and to discuss how land managers can
incorporate this information into existing forest ecosystem management plans and practices to improve management of the matsutake resource.
The American matsutake is commercially harvested from northern Canada to
northern California, and more recently, in the mountains of central Mexico. Unlike
other harvested wild mushrooms, however, the market for American matsutake is
almost entirely for export to Japan (70 percent) or for sale to Asian communities
in the Pacific Northwest (21 percent) (Schlosser and Blatner 1995). The American
matsutake resembles the Japanese matsutake in shape, odor, and flavor. Demand
for Japanese matsutake has increasingly exceeded supplies during the last 30 years
owing to the decline of matsutake habitat in Japan and growing demand from a
larger and wealthier consumer population. Hence, Japanese entrepreneurs began
importing similar mushrooms to supplement supply, especially since the mid-1980s.
We begin our first chapter by examining ancient traditions regarding matsutake
and events that have prompted importation of the Japanese matsutake and similar
species. Matsutake species develop symbiotic associations with the roots of forest
trees; these are called mycorrhizae (literally fungus-roots) and are essential to the
health of both symbionts (Plate
7). The fungus explores the soil with its mycelium
and directly provides nutrients to the roots. In return, the plant provides carbohydrates (sugars) produced from photosynthesis that serve as the energy source
for the fungus. Japanese mycologists have extensively studied the ecology and
physiology of the Japanese matsutake and its mycorrhizal relationship to host
trees. Together with professional foresters, they have developed forest
management techniques aimed at sustaining and enhancing matsutake productivity by
manipulating forest stands and soil surface conditions. In essence, they manage
pine forests with enhanced mushroom production as the primary objective. We
conclude our first chapter by reviewing the ecology and management of the Japanese matsutake because that knowledge is rich with possibilities and
approaches for managing the American matsutake.
Chapter 2 explores the ecology of the American matsutake, a fungus widely
distributed throughout North America
(Redhead 1989) and harvested from diverse forest habitats where it develops mycorrhizal associations with numerous tree
species. Although the American and Japanese matsutake species share some common biological features, the
American matsutake has a much larger geographic range and thus exhibits a broader range of
local ecological
adaptations and specific habitat requirements. Managing the American matsutake must take
these ecotypic or strain differences into account. In this chapter, we also describe
some of the habitats known to produce reliable commercial crops. We conclude
this chapter by describing a pioneering biological and ecological study of American
matsutake populations in central Washington.
Chapter 3 discusses the challenges managers face when integrating the commercial
harvest of American matsutake into forest ecosystem management plans. We begin
by describing the social and economic context of the matsutake harvest in North
America and internationally. Then we analyze the biological, ecological, and forest
management considerations managers must integrate to maintain both fungus populations and their habitat, and thus sustain mushroom productivity.
Implementing long-term monitoring programs for wild, edible mushrooms is a
challenge for managers. Fungi are unique among forest organisms in their
reproductive biology. Their fruiting bodies (mushrooms and truffles) are ephemeral and
patchy in distribution, and the quantities produced differ greatly from year to year.
Practical methods to measure mushroom productivity in a variety of habitats are
mostly in early developmental stages. Survey and monitoring procedures developed
for plants and animals need extensive modification to make them suitable for measuring fungal distributions and productivity. We summarize monitoring approaches
and challenges and then describe current and future studies that will provide
managers with pertinent information for better decisions. We conclude by explaining how
matsutake management can be integrated into broader ecosystem management plans.
Our goal is to provide forest managers and the public with a summary of current
knowledge about the matsutake. We believe this will help resource managers
develop long-term matsutake monitoring projects at important harvest sites around
the Pacific Northwest and, in conjunction with input from the interested public,
develop effective and equitable plans for managing this valued resource.
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